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LEARNING PREFERENCES AND STRATEGIES 1

Chapter Outline Overview Memory Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Sensory Learning Preferences Visual Learning Auditory Learning Verbal Learning Kinesthetic Learning

Other Preferences Social Learning

Solitary Learning Global Learning Analytical Learning Express Yourself Learning Medical Terminology Study Skills Note Taking Learning Strategies Chapter Practice Exercises

Overview

Did you know your brain has the ability to adapt and change in response to learning new things? This is known as structural neuroplasticity. Your senses receive information, or input, from the environment, which is encoded and transmitted to various areas of the brain. Your brain creates a number of path- ways to retrieve the information, depending upon factors such as the type of input received by your senses. When the new pathways connect to previous knowledge, the pathways become stronger. Using the pathways regularly makes them faster, while pathways seldom used may disappear. Think of your brain as a busy city. As you drive, is there only one way to reach your destination, or are there multiple routes to choose from? If the road is blocked, do you know an alternate route? Are there connected side streets that could speed up your travel time? Is the road well maintained or difficult to travel? Your brain works simi- larly to traveling in the busy city as you try to remember something. The more pathways to the information, the more likely you will be able to retrieve it. If the pathways are well maintained and used often, you’ll be able to retrieve the infor- mation faster. In time, retrieving the information will be automatic and nearly effortless, just like traveling a road you’ve been on hundreds of times. In this chapter, we discuss how memory works, the role of your senses in learning, and specific learning strategies to facilitate structural neuroplasticity, allowing you to more easily retrieve information from long-term memory.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

Memory

Human memory is the process by which people store, retain, and retrieve infor- mation (Figure 1-1). Perceiving, processing, and storing information are complex processes that involve many parts of your brain. It is beyond the scope of this book to describe the process in detail. However, a few key points are worth mentioning. Sensory Memory Sensory memory involves the first brief impression during which your brain receives input on sights, sounds, smells, and other sensory data. Most of this information is immediately forgotten; however, some information is encoded and moves to short-term memory for further processing. Encoding is the process by which sensory input is converted to a form of memory that can be categorized and stored in the brain. Short-Term Memory Short-term memory allows you to retrieve a small amount of information for a very short span of time. In general, most people can retrieve four to seven items of information from short-term memory, which typically holds information for 15 to 30 seconds. Much of this information is then forgotten, but some encoded data is moved into long-term memory for storage. Short-term memory retention increases if the data are clustered into groups, a process known as chunking . For example, you may have noticed that it’s easier to remember a string of numbers, such as a telephone number, if you chunk the numbers, such as 233-467-9012 rather than 2334679012. Long-Term Memory Long-term memory can store an infinite amount of data for an indefinite period of time, perhaps for a lifetime. However, getting the information you wish to remember into your long-term memory is sometimes challenging. Using multiple learning strategies will facilitate the consolidation of short-term memories into long term memories and improve your ability to recall the information later. General self-care activities that enhance memory include healthy nutrition, stress-reduction activities, regular exercise, and regular, good-quality sleep.

Recall

Encoding

Sensory memory

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Information

Consolidation

Most is immediately forgotten

Most is quickly forgotten

FIGURE 1-1 Memory.

Sensory Learning Preferences

Because our senses are involved in the acquisition of new information, learning preferences are named accordingly: visual, auditory, verbal, and kinesthetic. We use our visual sense to see written words and images, our auditory sense to hear information, our verbal sense when we speak aloud, and our kinesthetic sense when we include movement of the body. We often receive input from multiple senses at the same time. For example, we use both the auditory and verbal senses when we have discussions with others. We use all four senses when we speak aloud while pointing to a structure on an anatomical model. Receiving input from multiple senses helps our brain create additional pathways for retrieving the information we need later. In the past, experts identified sensory learning preferences as “learning styles” that could guide instructors’ teaching methods and facilitate student success. Research has recently shown this is a myth, however. Instead, successful stu- dents take the information provided by the instructor and apply their learning preferences to specific study strategies. Your current learning preferences have likely been determined by past achieve- ment of good results when studying a certain way. However, being comfortable with a particular studying style does not necessarily mean it is the best or the most efficient way for you to study all subjects. It is best to experiment with a variety of tools that engage multiple senses and potentially create multiple path- ways for retrieval. Table 1-1 contains a list of study tools and activities that align with the four senses. Note that some study tools, such as simulation, can utilize all four senses in one activity! Learning Tips Ideas for study activities are scattered throughout each chapter of this book. Each Learning Tip uses the icons to identify which senses are utilized in the activity. You can use the icons to determine which tips align with your sensory learning preferences; however, it is to your benefit to read them all! Visual Learning If you have a visual preference for learning, you are most comfortable if you can see words, images, and actions (Figure 1-2). You may recall information by “seeing” it in your minds’ eye, whether it is a picture or diagram or a fragment of written text. You may find mnemonics (memory aids) especially helpful for remembering lists or sequenced pieces of information. Generally speaking, the more creative, whimsical, funny, or absurd they are, the better you will remem- ber them. There are many different types of mnemonics. Some examples follow: • Children use the well-known alphabet song, a musical mnemonic, to learn their ABCs. • Students in anatomy classes use one of several mnemonic variations to remember the 12 cranial nerves (olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, acoustic, glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal accessory, and hypoglossal). One example is “ O n O ld O lympus’s T ower T ops, A F inn and G erman V iewed S ome H ops.” Note that the first letter of each word is the same as the first letter of each cranial nerve’s name. • When spelling, most people use this rhyming mnemonic to remember where to place the i and e in a word: “I before e, except after c.”

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

TABLE 1-1 STUDY TOOLS AND ACTIVITIES THAT ALIGN WITH THE FOUR SENSES

Visual Study Tools

Lecture transcriptions Textbook exercises Discussion boards Live demonstrations PowerPoint presentations Mind mapping Diagrams Graphs Acronyms

Illustrations Photos Videos Puzzles Games Timelines Maps Internet data Mnemonics

Handouts Symbols Patterns

Shapes Colors Flash cards Memory palace Personal observations Simulations Writing and drawing Creating images to represent words Describing images aloud Describing processes aloud Flash cards speaking aloud Sounding out words aloud Flash cards with a partner Live demonstrations with audio

Tables Charts

Models Posters

Auditory Study Tools

Live classroom lectures Recorded classroom lectures

Songs Rhymes Games Debates Interviewing Role-playing aloud Reading aloud Songs Rhymes Games Debates Interviewing Role-playing aloud Reading aloud

Oral discussions Voice recordings Videos with audio Podcasts Group projects

Simulations with audio Expressive tone of voice

Verbal Study Tools

Teaching others Summarizing notes aloud Explaining concepts Oral discussions Reciting data Group projects Speeches

Describing images aloud Describing processes aloud Flash cards speaking aloud Sounding out words aloud Flash cards with a partner Simulations Using expressive tone of voice

Kinesthetic Study Tools

Using hand gestures Physically imitating objects Physical demonstrations Practicing a skill Songs with movements Rhymes with movements

Games with movements Role-playing with movements Imaginary writing in air Writing and drawing Writing and rewriting

Tracing images with finger Touching models/objects Physical simulations Acting out flash cards Creating models

Sensory Learning Preferences

FIGURE 1-2 Visual learning strategies help people who learn best by seeing the information represented visually.

Another form of commonly used mnemonic is the acronym . An acronym is a type of abbreviation created by making a word using the first letters or word parts in names or phrases. Following are examples of acronyms: FAQ— F requently a sked q uestions PIN— P ersonal i dentification n umber OLD CART— O nset, l ocation, d uration, c haracter, a ggravating factors, r elieving factors, t reatments The warning signs of malignant melanoma are shown by the abbreviation ABCD: A symmetry—One half of the mole does not match the other half. B order—The edges of the mole are irregular or blurred. C olor—The color varies throughout, including tan, brown, black, blue, red, or white. D iameter—The mole is larger than 6 millimeters. Memory palaces are a type of mnemonic said to have been used since ancient Greek and Roman times. This technique is also known as the method of loci; loci is Latin for locations. With this technique, you first visualize a location that you are extremely familiar with, such as your home. Next, mentally map out a typical walk through your home, noting distinctive objects or pieces of fur- niture you would see. The next step involves looking at the data you need to remember and creating an image in your mind that represents that data. The more bizarre, vivid, or memorable, the better! Mentally place each image along the path you are walking through your home. For example, when you need to memorize the terms for the instruments -scope, -tome, and -meter, you could first envision approaching your front door but replace the door with an image of a giant ruler made of meat to represent -meter, a measuring instrument. When you open your front door, step in, and turn right, you stop at a coat rack, but picture in its place a tuba wearing a giant pair of eyeglasses to represent -scope, a viewing instrument. As you continue walking straight ahead, you enter the kitchen where you find a knife standing on the counter, combing its hair. Comb rhymes with -tome, a cutting instrument. Continue placing mental images along the path through your home that you mapped out. Once all your data is placed, you’ll just need to walk through your memory palace in the same order each time, according to your study schedule. This method can be especially helpful if you need to remember things in a certain order.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

Auditory Learning Many people have a preference for auditory (or aural) learning. To most accu- rately and quickly grasp new information, these people need to hear it spoken (Figure 1-3). The more complex the data, the more this is true. The most com- mon example of auditory information sharing is a classroom lecture; however, there are other ways to hear information. Auditory learners can use any study or memory technique that allows them to hear information. It can be the spoken word, data set to music, a recording of a lecture, or any other auditory format. Recordings can be valuable study tools because you can listen to them during times when you normally cannot study, such as while on a bus or driving, exer- cising, or performing household chores. Auditory learners are usually verbal learners as well. If this is true for you, then you may learn best when you have the chance for a verbal exchange. The exchange allows you to speak and listen to others. For this reason, you may sometimes prefer studying with a partner or in a study group. You can also combine verbal and auditory learning by making a recording of your own voice. Speak into the recorder as if you were teaching the information to another per- son. Record a self-quiz by leaving a 5-second silent pause before you state the correct answer to each question. This allows you time to pull the information from memory and answer it aloud before hearing the recorded answer. Like the visual learner, you may find mnemonics helpful, especially if they include rhymes or are catchy and fun to say aloud. Verbal Learning It is sometimes said that some people must think (first) in order to speak. For those who prefer verbal learning, the reverse may be true: They feel compelled to speak in order to think. That is, speaking aloud helps them process information and think things through (Figure 1-4). This is especially true when the informa- tion is complex or the situation is stressful.

FIGURE 1-3 People who like to hear the information prefer audio learning strategies.

Sensory Learning Preferences

FIGURE 1-4 Verbal learning strategies appeal to people who like to process information by talking.

Verbal learning can include the spoken and written word. Note that when reading aloud, the spoken word is also heard, and the written word is also seen. This is an example of how three senses are used simultaneously to learn. You may feel that you are a verbal learner, but if you read aloud, you are actually using auditory and visual learning as well. You may benefit from studying with a partner or in a study group, which provides ample opportunity for discussion. It is helpful to explain challenging concepts or to teach your study partners about a given topic. By preparing to teach, you are developing a deeper understand- ing of the material for yourself, making it easier to remember. This is known as the protégé effect. For example, the members of your study group may decide to teach one another about the four major joint types in the body: hinge, ball-and- socket, pivot, and gliding. Each person describes the appearance and function of a type of joint and gives an example. One person may compare a hinge joint, like those found in the knee and elbow, to a door hinge, and describe how it moves back and forth like a door that swings open and shut. The next person may compare a pivot joint, such as the one in the neck, to a chair that rotates back and forth in a 180-degree half-circle. This type of exercise may also involve visual and kinesthetic learning as the members of the group demonstrate what they are verbalizing. Kinesthetic Learning Most people have some kinesthetic (tactile) aspects to perceiving, understand- ing, and remembering information. People who are strong kinesthetic learn- ers use their bodies as they learn. They like to touch and manipulate objects (Figure 1-5). This is especially important when learning physical skills. Kines- thetic learners often use their visual, verbal, and auditory senses in conjunction with their kinesthetic sense. Role-play and simulations are common in health- care education and are a good example of using all four senses in a single learn- ing activity. Kinesthetic learners benefit from memory techniques that allow them to move their body or touch objects. For example, if you are learning the bones of the body, touch that bone on your own body or combine it with visual learning by pointing to it on a partner, an illustration, or a model of a skeleton. Add verbal and auditory learning by saying the name of the bone aloud as you touch it. When learning skills or procedures, your best strategy is to actually get your hands on the needed supplies and practice the procedure. When physical prac- tice of a skill is not possible, visualization is a great alternative. It gives you the

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

FIGURE 1-5 People who prefer kinesthetic learning touch objects or move their bodies to help process and remember information.

chance to “practice” skills in your mind and even move your body, arms, and hands as you would when performing the actual skill. When the content is theo- retical, you still benefit from physical movement.

Other Preferences

In addition to sensory preferences, you may have a social inclination for learn- ing. If you notice that interacting with others helps you grasp and understand information, you may benefit from a social learning environment. On the other hand, you may feel that you do your best when working alone without the dis- traction of others, in a solitary learning environment. Don’t limit yourself to one or the other. Learning in both environments is valuable. Social Learning Many people learn effectively when they can interact with other people (Figure 1-6). They enjoy group synergy (the enhanced action of two or more agents working together cooperatively) and can think things through with the verbal exchange that

FIGURE 1-6 Many people prefer social learning.

Other Preferences

occurs during a lively discussion. Social learners may find that they feel restless and have difficulty staying focused when they try to study alone. They need to seek out opportunities to study with one or more additional people.

Solitary Learning Many people learn effectively when they are able to study alone without distraction from others. Solitary learners may feel frustrated when trying to study with a part- ner or a group. They may feel like others are wasting their time and believe they would do better alone. They focus and concentrate best on their own. They may be self-starters who don’t need anyone else to prompt them or provide structure. In addition to the sensory and social strategies just described, most people tend to initially grasp information either as a whole, looking at the big picture, or in a more sequential fashion in which the individual parts are studied first to compre- hend the whole (Figure 1-7). If you are in the first group, you have a preference for global learning. If you are in the second group, you prefer analytical learning. Global Learning Global learners, sometimes called holistic learners, generally see the big picture first and later pay more attention to details. For example, when studying the human body, global learners first see the body as a whole and complete organ- ism. With that picture in mind, they are then able to begin studying the parts. This is true even when studying individual body systems, such as the cardiovas- cular system. Global learners first grasp the big picture of the entire system as it circulates blood throughout the body. With further study and thought, they

FIGURE 1-7 Global learners first think about the whole concept to help themselves under- stand the details. Analytical learners generally need to see the parts before they can fully comprehend the whole.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

appreciate how the system delivers oxygen and nutrients and eliminates waste through a complex network of vessels including veins, arteries, and capillaries. When global learners find studying details to be tedious and boring, they can try to find other, more creative and fun ways to learn the same material. For exam- ple, they may prefer drawing their own colorful diagrams or may enjoy using interactive audiovisual tutorials or other activities that are often available online or in digital apps. Visit the Medical Language Lab at medicallanguagelab.com. You’ll find lecture videos, audio tutorials and pronunciation guides, additional flash cards and exercises for critical listening, spoken term generation, word-building, and more! Analytical Learning Analytical learners, sometimes called logical, linear, sequential, or mathematical learners, generally need to see the parts before fully comprehending the whole. Analytical learners readily identify patterns and like to group data into cate- gories for further study. They may create and follow agendas, make lists with items ranked by priority, and approach problem-solving in a logical, methodical manner. Some of the same qualities that are strengths can, at times, become a source of frustration. For example, analytical learners may get stuck in “analysis paral- ysis” as they study details. This can stall forward movement and impair decision making. To them, facts are only facts when they are indisputably accurate and supported by reliable data. Other people may become frustrated by the analyt- ical learner’s need to gather more data and process information in detail (often verbally). They generally are not interested in the logic and rationale and instead wish the analytical learner would just get to the point. Express Yourself Completing chapter exercises is an example of using your visual and kines- thetic senses to encode information for retrieval. In Chapters 4 through 14, you are invited to seek permission from your instructor to complete and sub- mit the final exercise in a way that showcases your specific learning prefer- ences. In the Word Building exercises, you are provided a list of word parts and are prompted to create medical terms that match literal translations of the combined parts. Most of the terms you form will have a commonly used, more detailed medical definition than the translations given in the prompts. Take, for example, the word glioma . The combining form gli/o means glue or gluelike, and the suffix -oma means tumor. Together, the word parts mean “gluelike tumor”; however, the medical definition of glioma is “tumor of the glial cells.” You are instructed to use a medical dictionary to deter- mine whether your terms are correct and to explain the more commonly used meaning. The medical dictionary often elaborates on the use of the term, which provides an opportunity for you to be creative in demonstrating what you know about the meaning of the term. Here are some suggestions for alternative ways to submit the final chapter exercise: • Use all terms in a live or recorded story, game show, or play. • Create an informative podcast, teaching others.

• Create a PowerPoint presentation with images, teaching others. • Substitute terms and definitions for song lyrics or rhymes.

Learning Medical Terminology

Medical terminology courses require students to learn a huge amount of infor- mation. In other words, you must memorize large amounts of data. There is no way around it: Learning medical terminology is like learning a foreign language. To become fluent in this language, you must develop a large, accurate vocab- ulary, and you must know how to use it. You can accomplish this by utiliz- ing multiple learning strategies. You should not expect it to be easy, but don’t give up! The difficulty can facilitate more effective learning through increased engagement and effort. Study Skills It is unrealistic to expect instructors to employ teaching methods that align with your learning preferences, as research shows it does not improve student suc- cess. It is the student’s responsibility to learn; however, many people have never been taught this skill. Often, students resort to cramming, an extensive memori- zation of a large amount of data over a short period of time. Cramming results in very poor recall and may displace other important data in short-term memory. Some factors important to long-term memory retention follow. If you find you are struggling during the course, revisit this list to determine whether you’re maximizing your ability to learn. • Attention (the extent to which you consciously attend to and focus on the data) • Repetition (your rehearsal of the data over and over) • Information-processing methods (the strategies you use to analyze and remember data) • Study effort (the time and energy you devote to studying) • Emotional relationship (relating the information being studied to strong emotions or significant events) • Connection (relating new information to a prior experience or previously learned information) Many colleges and universities are making strides to improve student success by evaluating these and other factors using a research-based assessment tool called the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI). The LASSI assesses 10 areas: anxiety, attitude, concentration, information processing, motivation, selecting main ideas, self-testing, test strategies, time management, and using academic resources. The results are intended to be shared with your instructor, advisor, counselor, or tutor to assist them in designing specific interventions according to your individual learning needs. The LASSI may be provided by your college or university or can be purchased by individual students for a small fee. Note Taking Taking notes does not mean attempting to capture everything that was said during a lecture. Instead, write down main ideas, keywords, and important dates and names. Use bullets, phrases, abbreviations, symbols, and drawings instead of complete sentences. Add how the new information connects to your prior knowledge or personal experiences. Write down questions to ask your instructor or discuss with your classmates later.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

How do you know what is important to record in your notes? You can begin by reviewing the assignment before class. Complete any pre-class activities such as reading relevant text or watching videos, and begin noting any content that is unclear. During lecture, watch and listen to the instructor. Often, main ideas are included in introductory remarks. There may be gestures, facial expressions, verbal emphasis, or even long pauses indicating important points. If the instruc- tor is repeating information, it should probably be included in your notes. The instructor usually ends each lecture with a summary that may alert you that you’ve missed something that you’ll need to follow up on. Always review and edit your notes while the information is still fresh in your mind to ensure you’ve clearly captured the important data. Make sure you understand the concepts in your notes and ask questions to fill in any gaps. If you are taking notes from a recorded lecture, rewind! At times you’ll find it will be best to rewrite your notes to understand them better. That’s okay! The act of writing and rewriting helps to move information into long term memory. There are a variety of ways to take effective notes, four of which are described here. Most important, use your notes to study! There’s little value in writing great notes if you never look at them again. Outline. Linear, vertical notes that record the main topic on the far-left side of the page with subtopics indented to the right underneath. Be sure to skip lines between main topics. You will need room for additional information that may be provided later in the lecture. You may also use these spaces for questions to follow up on or for memory aids such as drawings. Cornell Notes: A page is divided into three sections: a large, vertical column on the right (70% of page width), leaving a narrower vertical column on the left, and a short horizontal row on the bottom (Figure 1-8). Only the right column is used during lecture. Notes should be entered there in the out- line format just described. After lecture, review your notes and use the left

Subject: REDUCED NOTES

Date:

LECTURE NOTES During Lecture

After Lecture

SUMMARY After Lecture

FIGURE 1-8 The Cornell Notes system divides the notes page into three sections.

Learning Medical Terminology

column to reduce them to main ideas, cues to help you remember the main ideas, important names or dates, questions to follow up on, or thoughts you have about the material. Last, use the horizontal row on the bottom to briefly summarize the notes. Mind mapping: The topic is written in the center of the page, and details branch off from the topic in all directions. For example, in Figure 1-9, “urinary system” is written in the middle of the page and circled. The first organ of the urinary system is added to the mind map with a short line extending outward from the urinary system circle to a new circle labeled “kidneys.” Separate lines and circles are drawn for the ureter and bladder. Details are then added to the organ circles. Short lines and circles connect the next level of facts, such as the organ size and shape, its function, the structures within the organ, and pathologies that can affect the organ. The mind map continues outward in all directions as facts such as pathology symptoms and pharmacology are added. You can use colors to further organize your own maps and add images and thoughts that have meaning for you. Charting method: A table is used to organize information that contains a lot of facts. For example, a four-column table can be created for learning mul- tiple pathologies. The column headings could be labeled name of pathology; systems, organs, or tissues affected; symptoms; and pharmacology .

Size

Structures

Size

Structures

Function

Bladder

Kidneys

Pathologies

Urinary System

Pathologies

Symptoms – –

Ureter

Size

Facts

Pathologies

Function

Structures

Symptoms – –

FIGURE 1-9 Mind mapping.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

Learning Strategies A learning strategy is an individual’s approach to completing a task. More specifically, a learning strategy is an individual’s way of organizing and using a particular set of skills in order to learn content or accomplish other tasks more effectively and efficiently in school as well as in nonacademic settings (Schumaker & Deshler, 1992). Learning strategies have been researched for decades. There is even evidence of some of these strategies being used hundreds of years ago! Here are six strategies that are proven to help you move informa- tion into long-term memory and improve your ability to recall the information later. Dual coding. Use images and words together. For example, add drawings to your notes and flash cards. You don’t need to be an artist! The drawings only need to have meaning for you. Use your notes to create a memory palace. Use the Internet to find pictures of the anatomical structures and pathologies you are studying. Create diagrams or flowcharts of processes such as the pathway of food from ingestion to excretion. Elaboration. Connect new information to prior knowledge, experiences, or emotions. For example, when learning the definition and symptoms of peripheral neuropathy, remember a friend or family member who had that pathology and those symptoms. Recall that their hands were painful, they couldn’t feel things very well, and they had difficulty holding onto objects and opening jars. Ask how and why questions. For example, a biopsy procedure is the removal of a tissue sample for microscopic examination. Ask, how is the tis- sue removed? Why is it examined with a microscope? The answers to these questions may lead to additional questions. Connect the answers to prior knowledge, experiences, or emotions. Concrete examples. Use real-life examples to understand abstract ideas. For example, when learning the parts of a neuron, dendrites could be described as branches of a tree. The overview of this chapter used a city and roads to describe how the brain retrieves information from memory. Retrieval practice. Read the question, then pause to pull the answer from memory, with no cues, before revealing the correct answer. The more often you can retrieve the correct answer, the easier it gets to retrieve it. If you make a recording of yourself doing this, you can listen to it while you are exercising, which is also good for learning! When you are completing the practice exercises in the book, keep in mind that you cannot use the retrieval practice strategy for multiple choice, true/false, and similar questions that supply answer choices. For these question types, you are merely recognizing the correct answer instead of retrieving it from memory. Spaced practice. Study the same information multiple times over short periods of time, even across multiple days, rather than in one long study period that covers the same amount of time. For example, instead of study- ing medical terms for 2 hours on Monday only, study them for 30 minutes each day, Monday through Thursday. Also known as distributed practice or spaced repetition, this strategy is the opposite of cramming. There is no research on the optimal amount of spacing. Intervals should be closer together in the beginning and increase over time, as the information becomes easier to remember.

Chapter Practice Exercises

As you run through your flash cards, separate them on an ongoing basis by those you know well and those that need more practice. The cards you can quickly and correctly answer are placed in a pile and are practiced less often, such as weekly. Cards you answer incorrectly or for which you strug- gle to recall the answer are placed in a pile and are practiced more often, such as daily. Cards will switch piles based on your ability to provide the correct answers. The goal is for all cards to end up in the pile that is prac- ticed less often, with a steady increase in practice intervals. This is a varia- tion of a method known as the Leitner system. Interleaving. Study different topics, ideas, or problem types in a sequence, in a given amount of time. For example, instead of studying medical terms for an hour on Monday, pathologies for an hour on Tuesday, and abbreviations for an hour on Wednesday, spend an hour each of those days studying all three topics, alternating between topics every few minutes. Mix your med- ical terms, pathologies, and abbreviations flash cards together so that you potentially cover a different topic with each card.

Chapter Practice Exercises

1. Spot the Wrong Terms Throughout this book, you will see practice exercises that ask you to identify when a medical term is used incorrectly. These exercises tap into your ability to use con- text clues in addition to your knowledge of medical terminology to understand and apply medical terms. The following paragraph contains four terms related to learn- ing preferences that are wrong (they don’t match what is being described). Identify which term is incorrect and write the correct term. Ronaldo, Chauntisse, and Mark are working on a group assignment for their course. Ronaldo recognizes that he takes a global learning approach because he is very detail-oriented and likes to make color-coded lists to help him categorize and remember information. This strategy also shows that he has a preference for auditory learning. On the other hand, Chauntisse prefers to work in a group so she can talk ideas through and listen to concepts being explained to her. She relates to the solitary, verbal, and auditory approaches to learning. Mark is a very active person. He prefers a hands-on approach to learning and enjoys doing simulations or demonstrating ideas in the front of the class. He recognizes that all students in the group know that committing information to their short-term memory is the best way to recall that information.

Incorrect Term

Correct Term

1. 2. 3. 4.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

2. Match the Learning Strategy

Match the learning strategy to the description. Dual coding Elaboration Interleaving Concrete examples

Spaced practice Retrieval practice

Studying a variety of topics, ideas, or problem types in a sequence, in a given amount of time

Reading the question, then pausing to pull the answer from memory, with no cues, before revealing the correct answer

Connecting new information to prior knowledge

Adding a drawing to notes and flash cards

Studying the same information multiple times over short periods of time rather than in one long study period that covers the same amount of time

Asking how and why questions

Separating flash cards on an ongoing basis by those you know well and those that need more practice

Using real-life examples to understand abstract ideas

Connecting new information to prior experiences

10.

Creating a memory palace

3. Match the Sensory Learning Preference

Match the sensory learning preference to the statement. Answers may be used more than once. Visual Auditory Verbal Kinesthetic

When I study for a test, I prefer to

1. read my notes and look at tables and charts.

2. create and label a model.

3. practice the skill multiple times.

4. “teach” a study partner.

Chapter Practice Exercises

When I want to learn how something works, I prefer to

5. listen to someone explain it.

6. take it apart and examine individual pieces or functions.

7. watch a demonstration.

8. recite the concepts aloud.

4. Multiple Choice

Select the one best answer to the following multiple-choice questions.

1. Reading lecture transcriptions, completing textbook exercises, and contributing to online discussion boards all appeal to those who prefer a. verbal learning. b. auditory learning. c. kinesthetic learning. d. visual learning. 2. I prefer kinesthetic learning. I am most likely to make which of the following statements? a. “That sounds like an experience I had.” b. “This doesn’t feel right to me.” c. “I see what you mean.” d. “Let’s cooperate on this project.” 3. I am using this research-based learning strategy when I draw images to accompany my notes. a. interleaving b. retrieval practice c. dual coding d. spaced practice 4. Jonathon loves music and is always humming, whistling, or singing something. In a recent conversation, he told his friend, “I hear you loud and clear.” Jonathon most likely prefers a. visual learning. b. auditory learning. c. social learning. d. kinesthetic learning.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

5. Brian fidgets in the classroom and struggles to get through lectures, yet when he is in the laboratory, he does very well and enjoys learning. His preferred learning style is most likely a. kinesthetic.

b. solitary. c. auditory. d. verbal.

6. Which of the following is an example of an acronym? a. “ i before e except after c ” b. NSAID—nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug c. the alphabet (ABCs) song d. “In fourteen hundred ninety-two, Columbus sailed the ocean blue” 7. Studying flash cards with a partner, summarizing notes aloud, and participating in debates all appeal to those who prefer

a. verbal learning. b. solitary learning. c. kinesthetic learning. d. visual learning.

8. Jamey wants to create a study group of classmates with multiple learning preferences. Which activity would meet the needs of a group of kinesthetic, verbal, visual, and auditory learning? a. having debates b. creating acronyms together c. taking turns describing information aloud while performing a physical demonstration. d. interviewing each other 9. Which of the following statements about memory is not true? a. Sensory memory involves the brain receiving input on sensory data and encoding some of the data for movement to short-term memory. b. Short-term memory allows you to retrieve data in a very short span of time, usually several seconds to several minutes. c. Chunking is a technique that decreases the number of items one can recall. d. Cramming results in very poor recall and may displace other important data in short-term memory. 10. I completed the assigned reading prior to class and have decided that taking notes in a table will be the best way to capture all of the facts. Which notetaking method will I be using? a. outline b. Cornell Notes

Chapter Practice Exercises

c. mind mapping d. charting method

11. Which of these activities can utilize the auditory, verbal, visual, and kinesthetic senses?

a. listening to a recorded lecture b. using flash cards with a partner c. watching a demonstration d. creating a chart

12. Which of the following statements is not true? a. Relating new information to a prior experience or previously learned information is important for long-term memory retention. b. The amount of time and energy you devote is important for long-term memory retention. c. Extensive memorization of a large amount of data over a short period of time is important for long-term memory retention. d. Relating the information being studied to strong emotions or significant events is important for long-term memory retention. 13. With this method of taking notes there are three columns for notes; however, only one column is utilized during class. a. charting method b. mind mapping c. outline d. Cornell Notes 14. When I study my flash cards in a frequency determined by which cards need more practice, I am using this research-based learning strategy. a. spaced practice b. dual coding c. concrete examples d. elaboration 15. All of the following statements are true about memory palaces except a. I must determine my palace by thinking of a place I know extremely well, such as my home or car. b. I must create vivid or bizarre mental images to replace objects in my palace, such as the door, front seats, and rear-view mirror in a car palace. c. I must create physical objects such as drawings to represent my vivid or bizarre mental images and place them in my palace. d. I must map out a typical interaction with my palace, such as walking through my home or getting into my car.

Chapter 1: Learning Preferences and Strategies

16. When utilizing this method of taking notes, I will build outward from the center of the page. a. mind mapping b. outline c. Cornell Notes d. charting method 17. End-of-chapter exercises that alternate question topics are utilizing which research-based learning strategy? a. spaced practice

b. elaboration c. dual coding d. interleaving

18. Encoding is

a. clustering data into groups. b. the process in which sensory input is converted to a form of memory that can be categorized and stored in the brain. c. making a word using the first letters or word parts in names or phrases. d. the enhanced action of two or more agents working together cooperatively. 19. Which of the following study tools is also known as the protégé effect? a. retrieval practice b. teaching others

c. memory palace d. Cornell Notes

20. All of the following statements are true except a. Adjusting my attitude toward learning can improve my chances of success in this course. b. Controlling my anxiety level can improve my chances of success in this course. c. Eliminating strong emotions about a course topic can improve my chances of success in this course. d. My willingness to utilize academic resources can improve my chances of success in this course. Reference Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1992). Validation of learning strategy inter- ventions for students with learning disabilities: Results of a programmatic research effort. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Contemporary intervention research in learning disabilities. Disorders of human learning, behavior, and communication (pp. 22–46). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-2786-1_2

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Chapter Outline Structure and Function The Heart Blood Vessels The Heart’s Electrical System Combining Forms Abbreviations

Pathologies Procedures and Pharmacology Common Diagnostic Tests and Procedures Pharmacology Case Study: Deep-Vein Thrombosis Chapter Practice Exercises

PREFIX AND SUFFIX REVIEW Study these Chapter 2 prefixes and suffixes; they are used often in medical terms for the cardiovascular system.

Prefixes

Suffixes

a-, an- without, not, absence of anti- against dys- abnormal, bad, difficult, painful endo-, intra- in, within, inner hyper- excessive, above hypo- below, beneath

-al, -ar , -ic pertaining to -cyte cell -dynia pain -ectasis dilation, expansion -ectomy excision, surgical removal -emesis vomiting -esthesia sensation -genesis creating, producing -graphy process of recording -ia condition -itis inflammation -kinesia movement -lith stone -lysis destruction -megaly enlargement -meter measuring instrument -necrosis tissue death -ology study of

-oma tumor -osis abnormal condition -pathy disease -penia deficiency -plasia formation, growth -plasty surgical repair -ptosis drooping, prolapse -rrhage bursting forth -rrhaphy suture, suturing -sclerosis hardening -stasis cessation, stopping -stomy mouthlike opening -tome cutting instrument -tomy cutting into, incision -trophy nourishment, growth -uria urine

macro- large micro- small peri- beside, near

154

155

Structure and Function

Learning Tip Verbally describe photos or illustrations in this book to a real or imaginary friend who cannot see them. Provide all the details they need to accurately visualize what you are describing. Record your voice during this activity so that you can study, by listen- ing, while doing other things such as household chores or exercising.

Structure and Function

The main function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver oxygen-rich blood and nutrients to tissues and organs and to remove the waste products and carbon dioxide. This system includes a complex network of arteries, veins, capillaries, and the key structure—the heart—which pumps blood throughout your entire body. Cardi/o is the combining form for heart and vascul/o is the combining form for blood vessel . The Heart The heart is a hollow, muscular organ about the size of a closed fist that pumps oxygen-rich blood and nutrients to the trillions of cells of the body (Figure 6-1). To accomplish this, it beats an average of 60 to 100 times a minute throughout your entire lifetime. Your heart is in the center of your chest, slightly to the left,

Superior vena cava

Aorta

Left pulmonary artery

Right pulmonary artery

Right pulmonary veins

Left pulmonary veins

Pulmonary semilunar valve

RIGHT ATRIUM (RA)

LEFT ATRIUM (LA)

Tricuspid valve

Aortic semilunar valve

Mitral valve

RIGHT VENTRICLE (RV)

LEFT VENTRICLE (LV)

Inferior vena cava

Apex

Interventricular septum

Descending aorta

Oxygenated blood

Unoxygenated blood

FIGURE 6-1 The heart.

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Chapter 6: Cardiovascular System

in an area called the mediastinum . It has three layers: the outer lining, called the epicardium ( epi- = above, upon); the middle muscular layer, called the myocardium ( myo- = muscle); and the inner lining, called the endocardium ( endo- = in, within). The right and left sides of the heart are divided by a thick layer of muscle tissue called the interventricular septum . The heart is enclosed in a fibrous membrane called the pericardium ( peri- = beside, near), or peri- cardial sac, which also contains a small amount of pericardial fluid . This fluid acts as a lubricant that reduces friction as the heart repeatedly contracts and relaxes. Atria and Ventricles The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers, the right and left atria , receive blood and perform about 30% of the work. The two larger, lower cham- bers, the right and left ventricles , perform the other 70% of the work. The left ventricle is the largest and most muscular chamber because it works harder than the others, pumping blood out to the entire body. The apex is the tip of the left ventricle. This site is best for auscultating (listening to) sounds from the mitral valve and is where the apical pulse is best heard. Listening to the apical pulse for one full minute is considered the most accurate method of measuring heart rate and is the preferred method in situations in which accuracy is very important. Heart Valves Four one-way valves in the heart open and close to prevent the blood from flow- ing backward. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium and the right ven- tricle, and the mitral, or bicuspid valve , separates the left atrium and the left ventricle. The pulmonary valve separates the right ventricle and the pulmonary arteries ( pulmon/o = lungs), and the aortic valve separates the left ventricle and the aorta. Blood Circulation Through the Heart Blood flows through all four chambers and valves at the same time. Blood that is low in oxygen (O 2 ) but high in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) returns from the body to the right atrium via the inferior and superior venae cavae . Although both the right and left atria contract at the same time, they each pump blood to a different area. The right atrium pumps oxygen-poor blood and CO 2 downward through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, it forces blood up and out through the pulmonary valve into the pul- monary arteries. The pulmonary arteries lead to the lungs and are unique in that they are the only arteries in the body that transport oxygen-poor blood. While the blood circulates through the lungs, it gets rid of CO 2 and picks up O 2 . Blood that is now oxygen rich returns through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium (Box 6-1). The pulmonary veins are unique in that they are the only veins in the body that transport oxygen-rich blood. When the left atrium con- tracts, it forces blood downward through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From there, the blood is pumped by the left ventricle upward and out through the aortic valve into the aorta and out to the tissues and organs. In summary, pulmonary circulation occurs when the right side of the heart receives deoxygen- ated blood from the body and sends it to the lungs. Systemic circulation occurs when the left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends it out to the body.

Flashpoint Arteries move blood from the heart to the body while veins move blood from the body back to the heart. With a condition called venous insufficiency, it can help to elevate the legs but with arterial insufficiency, elevating the legs does not help.

Learning Tip Create your own mnemonic, such as “ T ry P erforming B etter A lways,” to remem- ber the order of blood flow through the valves of the heart: tricuspid, pulmonary, bicuspid, aortic.

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